Citation Styles and Reference Standards

Harvard

The Harvard Style is one of the most widely used citation systems, primarily applied in social sciences and business administration. This system is based on the use of in-text citations, which refer to the sources that are fully documented in the bibliography at the end of the document.

Structure of In-Text Citations

When citing sources within the text, the author’s last name and the year of publication are used. The main citation formats are as follows:

• (Diller, 2022) when making a general reference to an author's work.
• Diller (2022) states that… when the author’s name is incorporated into the text.
• (Diller & Brown, 2020) when the work has two authors.
• (Diller et al., 2022) when there are three or more authors.

The bibliographic entry of sources follows specific guidelines depending on the type of material (book, article, website, etc.).

Examples of Bibliographic References

Book

Format: Author, A.A. (Year) Book Title. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example: Diller, M,. (2022) Research Methods in Education. 3rd edn. London: Routledge.  

Chapter in an Edited Volume

Format: Author, A.A. (Year) 'Chapter Title', in Editor, E. (ed.) Book Title. Place of publication: Publisher, pp. xx-xx.

Example: Smiler, K. (2019) 'Teaching strategies for young learners', in Green, T. (ed.) Modern Teaching Methods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 40-65.

Article in a Scientific Journal

Format: Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. (Year) 'Article Title', Journal Title, Volume(Issue),  pp. xx-xx.

Example: Smiller, M. & Brown, L. (2017) 'Digital learning environments and student engagement', Journal of Educational Technology, 36(2), pp. 70-105. 

Online Source (Website)

Format: Author or Organization (Year) Page or Document Title. Available at: URL (Accessed: Date).

Example: World Health Organization (2020) Global health statistics. Available at: https://www.who.int (Accessed: 10 February 2020).

Dissertation (PhD Thesis)

Format: Author, A.A. (Year) Thesis Title. Type of thesis. University Name.

Example: Lee, R. (2022) The impact of social media on communication. PhD thesis. University of Manchester. 

Newspaper (Article)

Format: Author, J.A. (Year) 'Article Title', Newspaper Name, Date, p. x.

Example: Miller, J. (2022) 'Climate change policies in Europe', The Guardian, 10 June,  p. 6.

APA (American Psychological Association)

The APA Style (American Psychological Association) is one of the most widely used referencing systems, primarily applied in the social and humanities sciences, such as psychology, education, and sociology. This system is based on the use of in-text citations and the inclusion of a complete list of references at the end of the document.

Structure of In-Text Citations

An in-text citation includes the author’s last name and the year of publication. For direct quotations, the page number is also included.

• Indirect reference to a source: (Law, 2022).
• Reference incorporated into the text: According to Law (2022), the research indicates that…
• Two authors: (Law & Brown, 2022).
• Three or more authors: (Law et al., 2020).
• Direct quotation: "The development of critical thinking is essential" (Diller, 2020, p. 52).

According to the latest APA guidelines (7th edition), when a work has three or more authors, "et al." is used in citations from the first occurrence.

Examples of Bibliographic References (References)

The bibliographic recording of sources follows strict formatting guidelines, depending on the type of material.

Format: Author, A.A. (Year). Book title (Edition). Publisher.

Example: Diller, M. (2023). Research methods in education (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Chapter in an Edited Volume

Format: Author, A.A. (Year). Chapter title. In E.E. Editor (Ed.), Book title (pp. xx-xx). Publisher.

Example: Draw, K.. (2022). Teaching strategies for young learners. In T. Green (Ed.), Modern teaching methods (pp. 40-60). Cambridge University Press.

Format: Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (Year). Article title. Journal Title, Volume(Issue), pages xx-xx. DOI or URL

Example: Smile, R., & Brown, K. (2020). Digital learning environments and student engagement. Journal of Educational Technology, 25(2), 11-22. https://doi.org/xxxxx 

Format: Organization or Author. (Year). Page or document title. URL

Example: World Health Organization. (2020). Global health statistics. https://www.who.int

Format: Author, A.A. (Year). Dissertation title (Doctoral dissertation, University). University Repository or URL

Example: Lee, B. (2022). The impact of social media on communication (Doctoral dissertation, University of Manchester). University of Manchester Repository.

Format: Author, A.A. (Date). Article title. Newspaper Title, p. x.

Example: Smille, J. (2020, March 10). Climate change policies in Europe. The Guardian, p. 5.

MLA (Modern Language Association)

The MLA Style (Modern Language Association) is primarily used in the humanities and social sciences, such as literature, linguistics, history and philosophy. At the academic level, MLA is applied to ensure proper citation of sources and consistency in the structure of academic papers. 

Structure of In-Text Citations

In MLA style, in-text citations include the author's last name and the page number from which the information is taken, enclosed in parentheses.

Basic Structure: (Author’s Last Name Page Number) Examples:

• Single Source:
  • According to Chomsky’s theory, "language shapes thought" (Chomsky 40).
  • Chomsky argues that "language and thought are interdependent" (40).
• Two Authors:
  • The relationship between language and culture is analyzed by Johnson and Miller (13).
• No Author Available:
  • (Title of the article or book), e.g., (“History of Language” 24).
• Electronic Sources Without Page Numbers:
  • (Lee, par. 10).

Examples of Bibliographic References

In MLA format, the bibliography appears at the end of the paper under the title "Works Cited." All sources are listed alphabetically by the author's last name. Each reference includes details such as the author's name, title of the work, publisher, and publication date.

Book

Format: Author. Book Title. Publisher, Year.

Example: Brown, John. The Art of Writing. Oxford UP, 2023.

Article in a Journal

Format: Author. "Article Title." Journal Name, volume, issue, year, pages.

Example: Diller, John. "Modern Literature and Society." Journal of Literary Studies, vol. 30, no. 4, 2019, pp. 10-22.

Website

Format: Author. "Title of Article or Page." Website Name, publication date, URL.

Example: Brown, Michael. "History of Ancient Greece." History Online, 10 May 2020, www.historyonline.com/ancient-greece.

Newspaper Article

Format: Author. "Article Title." Newspaper Name, date, page.

Example: Williams, Leam. "The Impact of AI on Education." The New York Times, 2 March 2020, p. A2.

ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers)

The ASCE citation style is primarily used in academic and professional settings for writing papers related to civil engineering, construction engineering, structural works, and other engineering sciences. In the ASCE style, citations in the text and the references are organized in a specific way, ensuring clarity and consistency.

In-Text Citations

Format:[Citation Number]

Examples:

• When referring to the work of an author:
  • According to the research (Kee [1]), this construction requires special attention.
• When quoting general information or data from a source:
  • The quality of construction materials significantly affects the durability of the building (Kee and Miller [2]).
• If no author is present, the citation is made based on the title of the work:
  • The recent study on renewable energy sources is of interest (Renewable Energy Sources [3]).

References

At the end of the paper, in the "References" section, the full citation of the sources used is listed. In the ASCE style, references are numbered in the order they appear in the text and include the essential details of the source, such as the author's name, title of the work, publication year, and publisher information.

Examples of References

Book:

Format: [Number] Author, Title of the Book, Publisher, Year.
Example:[1] Diller, J., The Art of Structural Engineering, Oxford University Press, 2022

Journal  Article:
Format: [Number] Author, "Title of the Article," Journal Name, Volume, Issue, Pages, Year.
Example: [2] Jumer, E., "Analysis of Concrete Behavior," Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 10-27, 2019.

Conference Paper:
Format: [Number] Author, "Title of Presentation," in Name of Conference, Date, Location, Publisher, Year.
Example: [3] Miller, R., "Innovative Approaches in Bridge Construction," in Proceedings of the International Conference on Civil Engineering, 10 – 14 June 2022, New York, ASCE, 2022.

Website:
Format: [Number] Author, "Title of Article or Page," Website Name, Publication Date, URL.
Example: [4] Miller, M., "Future Trends in Civil Engineering," Civil Engineering Today, 2 May 2023, www.civilengineeringtoday.com/future-trends.

Newspaper Article:
Format: [Number] Author, "Title of Article," Newspaper Name, Date, Page.
Example: [5] Zacher, S., "Sustainable Urban Development," The New York Times, 2 March 2020, p. A7.

Rules for Correct Use of ASCE in Academic Context

• Numbered List of References: In ASCE style, each source is cited by a number and the references are listed alphabetically in the "References" section.
• Hanging Indent: In the reference list, the citations should have a hanging indent. The first line of each reference is aligned to the left, and all subsequent lines have an indent.
• Double Spacing: Both the citations and the references should be double-spaced.

The Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) is one of the most well-known and widely used style guides for writing and citation in the academic community. It is primarily used in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. The Chicago Style provides detailed rules for formatting academic texts, citing sources, and creating bibliographies.
The Chicago Manual of Style supports two different citation systems:

1. Notes and Bibliography System (NB)
   • Primarily used in the humanities (history, literature, art, religious studies).
   • Citations are made using footnotes or endnotes, accompanied by a detailed bibliography at the end of the text.
   • Preferred for texts based on multiple different sources and primary materials.
2. Author-Date System
   • Primarily used in the social and natural sciences.
   • Citations are made within the text in the format (Author Year, Page).
   • Complete bibliographic references are listed at the end of the text.

Citation Structure in Chicago Style

Notes and Bibliography System (NB)

Citations are made in footnotes and include all necessary information for the source.

Examples of Footnote Citations

• Book (Full citation in first reference): John Diller, Ancient Civilizations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 32.
• Subsequent citation from the same source: Diller, Ancient Civilizations, 32.
• Article in a Journal: Lee Doe, "The Role of Women in Ancient Greece," Classical Studies Review 35, no. 3 (2020): 160.
• Chapter in an Edited Book: Michael Mark, "Trade in the Roman Empire," in Economic Structures of Antiquity, ed. Anne White (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022), 72.
• Website: Mark John, "The Fall of the Roman Empire," History Online, last modified March 1, 2020, https://www.historyonline.com/roman-fall.

Bibliographic Entries (at the end of the text)

Sources in the bibliography are listed alphabetically, in a slightly different format from footnotes:

• Book: Smith, John. Ancient Civilizations. New York: MIT Press, 2022.
• Journal Article: Doe, Keit. "The Role of Women in Ancient Greece." Classical Studies Review 5, no. 2 (2023): 11–30.
• Chapter in an Edited Volume: Brown, Michael. "Trade in the Roman Empire." In Economic Structures of Antiquity, edited by Anne White, 5–13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.
• Website: Johnson, Blue. "The Fall of the Roman Empire." History Online. Last modified March 1, 2020. https://www.historyonline.com/roman-fall.

Author-Date System

Citations appear in the text in parentheses and include the author's name, year of publication, and page number.

Examples of In-Text Citations

• Book: According to Smith (2017, 52), ancient Greece had an advanced system of government.
• Journal Article: The roles of women in ancient Greece were complex (Dewey 2020, 122).
• Chapter in an Edited Volume: Commercial activities in the Roman Empire were extensive (Doe 2020, 8).

Bibliography (at the end of the text, alphabetically)

• Smith, John. 2022. Ancient Civilizations. New York: MIT Press.
• Doe, Jane. 2023. "The Role of Women in Ancient Greece." Classical Studies Review 40 (4): 11-30.
• Dewey, James. 2020. "Trade in the Roman Empire." In Economic Structures of Antiquity, edited by Anne White, 65–90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Differences Between the Two Systems: